In R. Kane (Ed. Within ten years other countries may have nuclear bombs, each of which, weighing less than a ton, could destroy an urban area of more than ten square miles. answer choices. It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. He received the National Book Foundation's 5 Under 35 Award for his story collection Third Class Superhero, and was a finalist for the PEN Center USA Literary Award. Where S engages in action E, if (a) and (b) are satisfied then S is morally responsible for E. Stating this does not negate the possibility that S could still be held morally responsible for E, however, even where (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied, should another sufficient condition (as yet unspecified) be met. Alternate possibilities (or at least an alternate possibility) are therefore necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility (as we have seen), but acknowledging this is not the same as saying that it is necessary that S could have done otherwise on a given occasion (as is required by the original PAP). Third parties shift voters' attention away from major-party candidates. Article Such an agreement would also create a system of verification and disarmament that would prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and reduce the risk of nuclear war. s the chief of staff. Philosophia Riding somewhat roughshod over this debate and allowing that the sign does not indicate an alternate possibility (and therefore a flicker of freedom) because we do not need it too the twin world condition requires a comparison between S (or Jones or whoever) in W1 (where we allow no alternate possibility to exist) with S in W2 (where alternate possibilities incontrovertibly exist). What I have argued is that there is nothing to be gained, in terms of moral instruction, by insisting on PAP as a necessary condition for moral accountability. In J. Jordan, & D. Howard-Snyder (Eds. Further thoughts about a Frankfurt-style argument. Philosophical Explorations, 12(2), 109118. Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier are both architects who were known for their grand and innovative ideasas well as for their high esteem for their own opinions. 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. Which of these characteristics of world war I is illustrated by this central message? Frankfurt Examples. In 1932, both described these ideas in The New York Times; in these two articles Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier made their differing beliefs perfectly clear to the public. Oxford: Blackwell. Frederick Franck: Life and Work - World Wisdom In 1906, Wendell T. Bush became associated with the Journal as co-editor. After a lengthy search, the starving castaways were thrilled to discover that the tiny island offered a plethora of .. Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. in 1952 and an LL.B. The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. Many upcoming theories claim that in addition to knowing the current state of the agent/choice, we also need to know the way that her current state came about. Explain the importance of each term, person, or place: proletariat; soviet; Cheka; commissar. It seems that we have not escaped the need for alternate possibilities, thereby making alternate possibilities necessary. the four top leaders in Congress and the chief justice of the Supreme Court. Not three months later came Frank Lloyd Wrights rebuttal. c) The Role of History in Franck's Fairness931 20 Ibid, at 86. The achievement of such an agreement will thus essentially depend on the integrity of intentions and readiness to sacrifice the necessary fraction of one's own sovereignty, by all the parties to the agreement. Connect to Locke's argument about the prisoner. The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in When discussing alternate possibilities, then, the notion of alternate possibilities should be understood to mean that there is at least one alternate possibility that is considered morally praiseworthy, or at the very least not immoral. Frankfurth cases, alternate possibilities, and prior signs. What is Kane's "Indeterministic worlds" objection to the FF case? Voltaire supposedly kept up his prodigious output by spending up to 18 hours a day writing or dictating to secretaries, often while still in bed. Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. Erkenntnis, 78, 10371049. Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. (a) Describe: How does the father react to the stranger's request to look around? But not by verticality.. Describes a situation in which someone is morally responsible but is unable to do otherwise. Fischer, J. M. (2002). the leaders of organizations within the Executive Office of the President. In contrast once again to Le Corbusier, Wright predicts that [t]he traffic problem will be solved as architecture. The events in this chart that took place in 1933 led to which of the following in Germany. History doesn't matter then isnt the brainwasher really responsible? Typically, we want to ascribe moral responsibility to Jones because he decided to carry out an act that, let us say, we judge to be morally reprehensible. In this case, there are alternate possibilities, of course, thereby making it possible for S to do other than he did; but there are no alternate possibilities that do not involve a morally repugnant outcome; meaning that S cannot engage in any action that does not result in an immoral act occurring. As such, S fails to satisfy both PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and should not therefore be held to account, morally. Amazon.com: Taipei (Vintage Contemporaries): 9780307950178: Lin, Tao: Instead it has harnessed us to itself and plunged us into slavery, he wrote. Did Peter become the new captain\underline{\text{captain}}captain of the team? "For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent.". c) Issues of the Constitutional Convention - George Washington's Mount Vernon Fosse Dancers: The thrill of "Bob Fosse's Dancin'," a revival of the 1978 musical is, aptly, its dancers. Stump, E. (1996). But in each scenario, S is also morally responsible for E in W1 in virtue of the fact that Ss action in W1 is congruent with Ss action in W2 (it is congruent with what S would have done in a world with alternate possibilities). An Analysis Of Ralph Waldo Emerson`s `Self-Reliance` - GraduateWay Yet, in the twin world condition, the role played by alternate possibilities is not one of being available to S, such that he could have done other than he did on a particular occasion (as required by PAP(s) and W2), because, of course, they are not available. Elzein, N. (2013). In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. Recall: PAP(s): A person is morally responsible for what they have done if they could have done otherwise. In no other type of warfare does the advantage lie so heavily with the aggressor. Explain the "Frankfurt case" of Jones & Black argument against PAP. The correct option is B. Truman's goal was not to destroy Japanese culture or people but to destroy Japan's ability to wage war. Supporters of the bombings generally believe that they prevented an invasion of the Japanese mainland, saving more lives than they took by doing so. In the scenario above, involving Jones and the counterfactual intervener, Black or even in similar Frankfurt-style scenarios arguably clauses (a) and (b) are violated. All of us, familiar with the present state of nucleonics, live with the vision before our eyes of sudden destruction visited on our own country, of a Pearl Harbor disaster repeated in thousand-fold magnification in every one of our major cities. Frankfurt/Watson need a principled distinction here. It is 980 too many. With the convenience of modern transportation and future innovations to come, Wright asks why proximity to the city is important. Certainly, the could have done otherwise clause is indicative of one role for alternate possibilities (perhaps the most obvious): namely, making available other options at a given time. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America could say to the world, "You see what sort of a weapon we had but did not use. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. It is able to do this without succumbing to Frankfurt-style counter-examples. From a progressive modernist's point of view, it was a further exercise of freedom. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. An Overview of Sigmund Freud's Theories - Verywell Mind Modified Frankfurt-type counterexamples and flickers of freedom. Pereboom, D. (2009). . Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have. Likewise: Here, S should not be morally praised for E in W1 as we must conclude that some form of intervention has occurred thereby making Ss action in W1 incongruent with what he would have done in W2. The Japanese government instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese people, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons. I follow this with a discussion on how PAP(s) is able to withstand the challenge set by Frankfurt-style scenarios, before moving on to consider a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility. On mele and Robbs indeterministic Frankfurt-style case. The Founders agreed that all personsnot just citizensmust be included in the representation base for members of Congress. The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. Therefore, in making suggestions for the postwar organization of nucleonics, a discussion of political problems cannot be avoided. The two did not, however, see eye to eye in their visions for the future of American cities and civilization. Jones is incapable of making a decision that differs from what Black wants him to decide, and subsequently is incapable of doing other than what Black wants him to do. What would have to occur in order for the twin world condition not to be satisfied? 7388). Obviously believing his adversarys ideas to be impractical and beneficial only to the wealthy, Wright criticizes Le Corbusiers housing towers further, asserting [t]here is no life in them. Mapping my twin world condition onto the Frankfurt scenario, we should understand Joness action E to be congruent across W1 and W2. By way of a response, consider the following: Where Ss action E in world W1 (a world without alternate possibilities, owing to the possibility of intervention) and Ss action E in twin world W2 (which differs from W1 only insofar as it is a world with alternate possibilities) are congruent then S in either world is morally responsible for E. To illustrate how one might apply the twin world condition, consider scenarios (1) and (2): W1 (No alternate possibilities): S does E (an immoral act), W2 (alternate possibilities are available): S does E (an immoral act), W1 (No alternate possibilities): S does E (a moral act), W2 (alternate possibilities are available): S does E (a moral act). An agreement on a higher level, involving more mutual trust and understanding, would be to allow unlimited production, but keep exact bookkeeping on the fate of each pound of uranium mined. By Charles Yu. SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT In our constitutional democracy, all persons who reside within the United Statesincluding The certainty that German scientists were working on this weapon and that their government would certainly have no scruples against using it when available, was the main motivation of the initiative which American scientists took in urging the development of nuclear power for military purposes on a large scale in this country. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. Atomic bombs containing a larger quantity of active material but still weighing less than one ton may be expected to be available within ten years which could destroy over ten square miles of a city. A REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR, JUNE 1945. Accumulations of this kind could be rapidly converted into atomic bombs if a nation should break away from international control. A number of theorists have concerned themselves with the question of whether alternate possibilities nevertheless remain amounting to a flicker of freedom (Fischer 2002) and therefore whether Frankfurt-style counter-examples in general constitute a legitimate challenge to PAP (see Fischer 1994; Janzen 2013; Leon and Tognazzini 2010; Palmer 2011; Schnall 2001; Young 2007, by way of a small selection of papers on this). On the other hand, it may be argued that without an early demonstration it may prove difficult to obtain adequate support for further intensive development of nucleonics in this country and that thus the time gained by the postponement of an open armaments race will not be properly used. At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. PAP(s) is, however, not vulnerable to Frankfurts counter-example, as I shall now demonstrate. Question 10. The benefit to the nation, and the saving of American lives in the future, achieved by renouncing an early demonstration of nuclear bombs and letting the other nations come into the race only reluctantly, on the basis of guesswork and without definite knowledge that the "thing does work," may far outweigh the advantages to be gained by the immediate use of the first and comparatively inefficient bombs in the war against Japan. In the following sentences, circle the word that each underlined participial phrase modifies and draw an arrow from the participial phrase to the word it modifies. What is collective representation? He then sets out, using his now famous counter-example involving Jones and Black, to show that PAP is false. Writing that American skyscrapers have yet to earn the title of architecture, but are merely small objects such as statuettes or knick-knacks, magnified to titanic proportion, Le Corbusier proposes his plan for the skyscraper. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. PAP(s) is not vulnerable to Frankfurts or similar counter-examples. The essays were aimed at convincing opponents of the US Constitution to ratify it so that it . We have to be careful, of course, about how such a description is formally presented. The power lines damagedbythestorm\underline{\text{damaged by the storm}}damagedbythestorm needed repairs. PubMedGoogle Scholar. Pereboom, D. (2000). 119137). Modernism: Art for Art's Sake - Sweet Briar College It may be asked whether we cannot prevent the development of military nucleonics in other countries by a monopoly on the raw materials of nuclear power. As is well documented, this scenario led Frankfurt to conclude that PAP is false because, intuitively, we want to assign moral responsibility to Jones in this situation even though clauses (a) and/or (b) are not met and so he could not have done otherwise: a necessary condition for moral responsibility under the original PAP. Csar Franck was born in Belgium but established his career as a composer, organist, and influential teacher in France, most prestigiously at the Paris Conservatoire and at the church of Sainte-Clotilde. as long as uranium remains the only basic material for their fabrication), efficient dispersal of our industry and the scattering of our metropolitan population will considerably decrease the temptation to attack us by nuclear weapons. The Journal of Philosophy A. Csar Franck Biography. Fischer, J. M., & Ravizza, M. (1991). The twin world condition: Where Ss action E in world W1 (a world without alternate possibilities, owing to the possibility of intervention) and Ss action E in twin world W2 (which differs from W1 only insofar as it is a world with alternate possibilities) are congruent then S in either world is morally responsible for E. PAP(s) is not necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility because moral responsibility could still be ascribed to S even where S could not have done otherwise, as the twin world condition illustrates. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. In addition, I provide a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility the twin world condition and argue that this provides a means of justifying why the protagonist in Frankfurt-style scenarios (e.g., Jones) is still felt to be morally responsible. PDF | On Sep 1, 2002, I. Scobbie published Tom Franck's Fairness | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Standingathomeplate\underline{\text{Standing at home plate}}Standingathomeplate, Jesus\boxed{\text{Jess}}Jesus faced the pitcher. 24 The Empowered Self, at 265-267. Thus, we cannot hope to avoid a nuclear armament race either by keeping secret from the competing nations the basic scientific facts of nuclear power or by cornering the raw materials required for such a race. Most arguments for God's existence start from something we observe in the world that logically infer God as the cause of these observable effects (e.g. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(3), 551565. The debate on the origins of World War One | The British Library Le Corbusiers opinions of technology during his time continue to ring eerily true today. Philosophia, 35, 171180. Including a soundproof, well-lit living room and a double-faade of glass to control the effects of outside temperature, Le Corbusiers habitable towers were to include at least twelve dwelling floors each and accommodate 1,000 people per hectare (2.47 acres). Oxford: Blackwell. Schnall, I. M. (2001). Third parties promote the concerns of special-interest groups. An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. It must be stressed that if one takes the pessimistic point of view and discounts the possibility of an effective international control over nuclear weapons at the present time, then the advisability of an early use of nuclear bombs against Japan becomes even more doubtful -- quite independently of any humanitarian considerations. October 1999 Dipple | Mennonite Quarterly Review | Goshen College Believing that this separation would solve both pedestrian safety and automobile traffic concerns, Le Corbusier states that [t]he only solution is to restore to the pedestrian the surface of the city, all the surface, the earth. Believing that the society of his day was not properly utilizing the machines which they had created, and that the current cities were all outdated, the core of Le Corbusiers ideas for Ville Radieuse is epitomized in the description, knowledge, ethics, and esthetics, all are one, expressed in architecture; a new unity.. England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. Complete the sentence by inferring information about the italicized word from its context. A Thus, from the "optimistic" point of view -- looking forward to an international agreement on the prevention of nuclear warfare -- the military advantages and the saving of American lives achieved by the sudden use of atomic bombs against Japan may be outweighed by the ensuing loss of confidence and by a wave of horror and repulsion sweeping over the rest of the world and perhaps even dividing public opinion at home. Wrights ideas, instead, focus on decentralization, writing that we have plenty of space and that skyscrapers are unnecessary except to the landlords who charge rent. But this is not a necessary one; although, where satisfied, it is sufficient for the ascription of moral responsibility, as I have discussed. They would point out that the catastrophic consequences of a nuclear war would affect not only the warring nations but also the entire world. Why is the prisoner example ultimately not convincing? By making PAP sufficient rather than necessary for moral responsibility, it is still the case that anyone who satisfies (a) and (b) is held to account, morally. Why Frankfurt-examples dont need to succeed to succeed. His SOD is not effective/ makes little difference and is a slave to his passions. If the government should decide in favor of an early demonstration of nuclear weapons, it will then have the possibility of taking into account the public opinion of this country and of the other nations before deciding whether these weapons should be used against Japan. (Frankfurt 1969, p.835)Footnote 1. All external conditions required to enable alternate possibilities are satisfied. His music was heavily influenced by Liszt and Wagner, as in his Symphony in D minor, one of his most famous . (PDF) Tom Franck's Fairness - ResearchGate He decided to do this without the intervention of Black, and so made this decision oblivious to the fact that he could not have decided nor done other than he did. In this way, the money spent on wartime development of nucleartechnology may benefit the peacetime development of the national economy."James Franck, German-born scientist developing nuclear weapons technology for the United States, report to the United Statesgovernment, 194518) Which of the following developments during the Second World War Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. The Key Arguments of Jefferson for Independence and the - GradesFixer Debate has centred on whether the sign, which is not an indication of a decision, but an indication of what Jones is about to decide, nevertheless amounts to evidence that, on the occasion when the sign was present, an alternate possibility was available to Jones. The principle of alternate possibilities and ought implies can.. Donnelly argues both 'radical' cultural relativism and 'radical' universalism are misguided (1984, 403). The Franck Report: A Report to the Secretary of War, June 1945 Then, underline twice the verb in parentheses that agrees in number with the collective noun. However, unspoken among the delegates was the knowledge that George Washington would become the first president , and they trusted him to define the office. (1954) and S.J.d. He can place his "infernal machines" in advance in all our major cities and explode them simultaneously, thus destroying a major part of our industry and a large part of our population, aggregated in densely populated metropolitan districts. In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r the universe, morality, well-ordered laws of nature, etc.). Third parties help bridge the gap between state and federal legislators. a) Why is the prisoner example ultimately not convincing?, Principle of . Thomas M. Franck Murry and Ida Becker Professor of Law Emeritus Professor Franck graduated from the University of British Columbia with a b.a. 95110). 13. The key aspect of this solution he termed autostrades, elevated motorways 16 feet (4.8 meters) above the pedestrian domain on the ground. They would point out that the catastrophic consequences of a nuclear war would affect not only the warring nations but also the entire world. AP World History (AP Classroom) Questions U8 Flashcards On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) The Federalist was originally planned to be a series of essays for publication in New York City newspapers, but ultimately expanded into a collection of 85 essays, which were published as two volumes in March and May 1788. The Federalist Papers (article) | Khan Academy Not to mention, the natural landscape certainly was not given priority in planning most suburban settlements. Shabo, S. (2011). The United States use of nuclear weapons against Japan might provoke the Soviet Union into becoming Japan's ally. most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs? Give an example of where you have seen moment, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric, Lawrence Scanlon, Renee H. Shea, Robin Dissin Aufses, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self. Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP). What is it supposed to show, and why? There is only rent., Stating that Broadacre City is the only democratic form for a city due to its systematic integration of individual units, Wright embraces the existing highway system. Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. We felt, however, that the dilemma had to be stated, to show what kind of alternative method of protection will have to be considered if no successful international agreement is reached. How does he respond to the claim that the brainwasher is responsible for cult-man's actions (Principle of Transfer)? Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their problem- The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. (If FW requires whole-heartedness, what does this imply about decisions based on ambivalence? Princeton University student: Conservatives are being shut down before they can even voice an opinion. Both architects had utopian, all-encompassing plans for their ideal American city, combining social as well as architectural ideas. b) Nevertheless, it is not at all certain that American public opinion, if it could be enlightened as to the effect of atomic explosives, would approve of our own country being the first to introduce such an indiscriminate method of wholesale destruction of civilian life. Since the area of the United States is about three million square miles, it should be possible to scatter its industrial and human resources in such a way as to leave no 500 square miles important enough to serve as a target for nuclear attack. Once this is achieved, the large installations and the accumulation of explosive material at present earmarked for potential military use will become available for important peacetime developments, including power production, large engineering undertakings, and mass production of radioactive materials.